The Paradigmatic Shift Of System Theory - 1064 Words

The paradigmatic shift of system theory is the evolution of systematic thinking which is made up of two systems; the simple cybernetics (first order) and cybernetics of cybernetics (second order). The first system of the cybernetics also known as the simple cybernetics is the level in which we view lives from a perspective in which we observe from a different aspect of the outside view. I feel as though when it comes to the first order cybernetics, everything such as the personal view becomes irrelevant to the situation because our focus is on describing what is happening from a different pattern. As for the second order also known the cybernetics of cybernetics transform our view where we are no longer viewing from the outside looking in. In the system, we are now observing the situation from a standpoint which we are involved. In the book, I have acknowledged that it is best to view things that I can observe from the outside looking in and also being and participate in a situation which set my viewpoint than how others view certain situations. In my opinion, in most cases as humans, individuals go through different phases in their lives to learn, and to experience a different perspective when it comes, a prospect of our lives. When the book talks about the system theory/cybernetics it is a little frustrating to comprehend from my understanding and how to connect the theory to a real life situation. As I continue to read I’m trying to think how I would connect theShow MoreRelatedFuture of Criminology1590 Words   |  7 Pagesfield, its distinctiveness is not its knowledge base but the form of its focus: theories of crime, criminal law and the relation between the two - in this it is a sub-category of the sociology of deviance. 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Saussure in this way indicates that the course will be about language in general: not this or that particular languageRead MoreEssay on Thomas Kuhns Structure of Scientific Revolutions2246 Words   |  9 PagesStructure of Scientific Revolutions.’ This will be done by analyzing his concepts of ‘paradigm’, ‘normal science’ and ‘scientific revolutions.’ Following the overview I will present the example of ‘The Copernican Revolutionà ¢â‚¬â„¢ to empirically show a paradigm shift. The rest of the essay is concerned specifically with critically examining Kuhn’s notion of a paradigm and the incommensurability between them. I will show that to define paradigm is a never ending task however this should not hinder the usefulnessRead MoreTheories of Group Formation1036 Words   |  5 PagesTheories of Group Formation Below is an explanation of the different models of group formation processes by Lewin, Tuckman, McGrath, and Gersick including the major features, steps, and characteristics. Tuckman (1965), stated these roles/processes are needed for group formation: Forming: Group members learn about each other, and the task at hand. Indicators of this stage might include: unclear objectives, confusion, and low morale. Storming: As group members continue to work, they willRead MoreExistentialism In The Stranger1413 Words   |  6 Pageshad something in common,â€Å" a rejection of history and applied ornament; a preference for abstraction; and a belief that design and technology could transform society† (Crowder Design 1.) This shows us that these styles were influenced by the paradigmatic shift because of the cultural change in the art. Throughout the book, Meursault has shown traits of an Existentialist person and how he fits into the Existentialist model. According to The Basics of Philosophy, â€Å"Existentialism originated with theRead MoreTechnology And The World Wide Web Essay1344 Words   |  6 Pagesthere has not been a paradigm shift in education today to include these principles. Embedding these three principles in higher education will prepare students for a global future that include interactions with a broader and technological community. In addition, she analyzes open source publications such as Wikipedia, Instagram, WordPress and MOOCs (Massive Online Open Course) like Coursera, Harvard edX, and MIT edX to see whether or not they support her paradigm shift. Thus, she pushes for a changeRead MoreCritical Analysis of Research Articles1808 Words   |  8 Pagesarticles require two distinct research disciplines of qualitative and quantitative methods; also, articles must represent two paradigmatic assumptions; the articles chosen fall into quantitative post-positivistic, and qualitative constructivist methods and paradi gms; each article will be analyzed to review the Methodology of Critical Analysis; Research Questions; Use of Theory or Other Frameworks; Definitions, Limitations Significance; Methods and Procedures; Quality Rigor; Researcher PositionalityRead MoreS-D Logic1742 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction to Service Dominant (S-D) Logic Recently there has been a shift away from the traditional product-orientated marketing perspective to a more service-orientated one which focuses on â€Å"intangible resources, the co-creation of value and relationships† (Vargo and Lusch, 2004). Merz, He Vargo (2009) commented that goods were a â€Å"vehicle for service†, and whilst the provision of goods was still an important part of a transaction, there will always be some element of intangible service attachedRead MoreNursing Science : A Body Of Cumulative Scientific Knowledge2380 Words   |  10 Pagesinformation, technology, and culture. This paper will discuss the history of nursing science, development and maintenance of the science, application into mainstream practice, the incorporation of outside disciplines into nursing science, and the two paradigmatic perspectives. History of Nursing Science In the mid-1800s, there was a distinction between medical knowledge and nursing knowledge (Nightingale, 1859). Nursing practices were based on principles and traditions by way of apprenticeship and commonRead MoreThe Common Core State Standard Initiative1656 Words   |  7 Pagesunrealistic. Some however, such as Tom Scott, the executive director of the state superintendents association, believes â€Å"It’s [Common Core] much more about politics than it is about education† (Zernike). Tom argues that federal intervention has created a system which emphasizes easy to comparable results rather than an academically accelerated agenda. Opponents of the movement see the movement as an unnecessary disruption to the traditional state run education process. They argue that in the attempt to create

Symptoms And Treatment Of Schizophrenia Essay - 1348 Words

Schizophrenia According to the fifth edition of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), schizophrenia is a severe, chronic and debilitating mental disorder characterized by impairment in one’s cognitive, behavioral, and emotional functioning, which leads to social and occupational dysfunction (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Prevalence of schizophrenia in the United States is 1.1%, (National Institute of Mental Health [NIMH], 2015), and the economic burden related to schizophrenia in the United States is estimated to be more than US$60 billion per year (Chong et al., 2016). History of the Disease Schizophrenia has been identified as a syndrome called dementia for thousands of years, dating back to the age of Hippocrates (Preston, O Neal, Talaga, 2013). In the late 19th century, the German physician, Emile Kraepelin formulated the concept of the disorder and called it dementia praecox (Jablensky, 2010). He delineated the essential features of schizophrenia as a progressive neurodegenerative disease, which results in executive dysfunction and severe deterioration of cognitive and behavioral functions (Jablensky, 2010; Preston et al., 2013). The Swiss psychiatrist Paul Eugen Bleuler modified Kraepelin’s concept of the disease and coined the term â€Å"schizophrenia† in 1911 (Ashok, Baugh, Yeragani, 2012). The term was derived from the Greek words â€Å"schizein† (splitting) and â€Å"Phren† (mind) (Ashok et al., 2012). Bleuler observed splittingShow MoreRelatedSymptoms And Treatment Of Schizophrenia Essay937 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction Per MentalHelp.net, schizophrenia is rare with approximately one-percent of the worldwide population and 1.2 percent of the population of the United States suffering from the disease as of 2009. Accurate statistics are difficult to obtain because many sufferers do not seek help. Symptoms typically – but not always – present in teen years with different peak times for females and males. Females have two peak times of vulnerability – mid- to late twenties and again around 40 – whereasRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Schizophrenia1108 Words   |  5 PagesSchizophrenia What is schizophrenia? Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thought, cognitive impairment, and mood symptoms. Hallucinations may include hearing voices (auditory hallucinations) or seeing people (visual hallucinations) that are not actually present. Patient also often have â€Å"negative† findings such as decreased energy, flat affect, and a lack of interest. 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(Mental Health America 2015) In this paper I will write about the prevalence, whatRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Schizophrenia1011 Words   |  5 PagesSchizophrenia is a mental disorder that consists of hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech and thought. â€Å"Schizo† if Greek for Split while â€Å"phrene† means mind; schizophrenia literally translates to split mind (Burton, 2012). Why is schizophrenia considered to be split minded? According to Khouzam, 2012 split mind is used to describe the disruption within the thought process Schizophrenia i s a mental disorder that has subcategories that include paranoia, catatonia, disorganized, residual andRead MoreSymptoms, And Treatment Of Schizophrenia1413 Words   |  6 PagesOverview, Symptoms, and Treatment for Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is affecting people’s lives every day. There isn’t a cure for this disorder and it is lifelong. Schizophrenia can affect a person’s thoughts, emotions, and actions. People with this disorder can have a hard time figuring out what is real and what isn’t real. A common side effect to schizophrenia is hallucinations and delusions. Another common side effect is social withdrawal, which means that they avoid socialRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Schizophrenia843 Words   |  4 PagesPeople who suffered from schizophrenia were once mistaken to be â€Å"dangerous† and untreatable. For this reason, they were often institutionalized and removed from society (DiRocco). The causes of this mental psychotic disorder has been much more understood over the past decade resulting in the possibility for people with schizophrenia to live more average lives. Development of treatments, such as medication and various forms of psychotherapies, have been effective in treating symptoms and common comorbidRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Schizophrenia1058 Words   |  5 PagesSchizophrenia is defined as â€Å"a brain disorder that affects the way a person behaves, thinks, and sees the world.†(Melinda Smith, Jeanne Segal). Schizophrenia is treatable but incurable, and is present in one percent of the general population. Some people with schizophrenia can function normally without the help of medicines, while others must rely on medications. The disorder can also get so severe that an individual may need to be hospitalized or worse. The measures needed to treat schizophreniaRead MoreSymptoms And Treatment Of Schizophrenia1545 Words   |  7 PagesSchizophrenia, according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), is a psychotic disorder that is characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech and behaviour, and other symptoms that cause social or occupati onal dysfunction (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). The symptoms of schizophrenia invade every aspect of a person: the way someone thinks, feels, and behaves; which implicates their interpersonal and working relationships. Individuals suffering

Human Rights and Food Security Free Essays

string(173) " food security as an objective for human activity is reflected in the frequency with which the term â€Å"food security† appears in UN declarations and NGO advocacy efforts\." A PAPER ON: ‘Human rights and food security’ _______________________________________ PRESENTED BY: SHASHANKA KUMAR NAG LL. M- THIRD SEMESTER HIDAYATULLAH NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY RAIPUR, CHHATTISGARH Address: Shashanka Kumar Nag LL. M (Third Semester) Boys Hostel, B- Block, Room No. We will write a custom essay sample on Human Rights and Food Security or any similar topic only for you Order Now F-32 Hidayatullah National law University Uparwara Post, Abhanpur New Raipur – 493661 (C. G. ) Mobile: 09804513485, 08817104782 E-mail- shashankanag@gmail. com DECLARATION I declare that the work submitted by me for this seminar is a result of my own effort. I affirm that there is no plagiarism and copying, either partially or entirely, from someone else’s works, without giving proper credit and acknowledgement to the source(s)/author(s). INTRODUCTION â€Å"There are people in the world so hungry, that God cannot appear to them except in the form of bread. † Mahatma Gandhi Human rights are commonly understood as â€Å"inalienable fundamental rights to which a person is inherently entitled simply because she or he is a human being. Human rights are thus conceived as universal (applicable everywhere) and egalitarian (the same for everyone). These rights may exist as natural rights or as legal rights, in both national and international law. The doctrine of human rights in international practice, within international law, global and regional institutions, in the policies of states and in the activities of non-governmental organizations, has been a cornerstone of public policy around the world. Many of the basic ideas that animated the human rights movement developed in the aftermath of the Second World War and the atrocities of The Holocaust, culminating in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Paris by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948. The ancient world did not possess the concept of universal human rights. Ancient societies had â€Å"elaborate systems of duties†¦ conceptions of justice, political legitimacy, and human flourishing that sought to realize human dignity, flourishing, or well-being entirely independent of human rights†. The modern concept of human rights developed during the early Modern period, alongside the European secularization of Judeo-Christian ethics. The true forerunner of human rights discourse was the concept of natural rights which appeared as part of the medieval Natural law tradition that became prominent during the Enlightenment with such philosophers as John Locke, Francis Hutcheson, and Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui, and featured prominently in the political discourse of the American Revolution and the French Revolution. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, partly in response to the atrocities of World War II. Although the UDHR was a non-binding resolution, it is now considered by some to have acquired the force of international customary law which may be invoked in appropriate circumstances by national and other judiciaries. The UDHR urges member nations to promote a number of human, civil, economic and social rights, asserting these rights as part of the â€Å"foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The declaration was the first international legal effort to limit the behaviour of states and press upon them duties to their citizens following the model of the rights-duty duality. The right to food, and its variations, is a human right protecting the right for people to feed themselves in dignity, implying that sufficient food is available, that people have the means to access it, and that it adequately meets the individual’s dietary needs. The right to food protects the right of all human beings to be free from hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition. The right to food does not imply that governments have an obligation to hand out free food to everyone who wants it, or a right to be fed. However, if people are deprived of access to food for reasons beyond their control, for example, because they are in detention, in times of war or after natural disasters, the right requires the government to provide food directly. Right to Food and right to be free from hunger are the human rights which are protected under various international human rights and humanitarian laws. Right to food is explicitly mentioned in the Article 25(1) of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948; and the Article 11 of International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, 1966. It is also recognised in the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 and the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). Right to food of indigeneous people is implicit in the ILO Convention No-169 which is approved by 17 countries. Approximately 20 countries in the world have incorporated the Right to Food for their people. THE CONCEPT OF FOOD SECURITY World Development Report (1986) defined food security as â€Å"access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. According to Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the UNO, â€Å"Food security exists when all people at all times have access to sufficient and nutritious food to meet the dietary needs and food preference for an active and healthy life. † Staatz (1990) defined food security as â€Å"The ability to assure, on a long term basis, that the food system provides the total population access to a timely, reliable and nutritionally adequate supply of food. Thus food security may be of short-term or sustainable. In case of short-term food security we consider food security of the present population only. But in case of sustainable food security we consider the food security not only of the present generation but also of the future generation as well. According to Swaminathan, â€Å"Sustainable food security means enough food for everyon e at present plus the ability to provide enough food in future as well. † In the long-run sustainable food security is very important. ELEMENTS OF FOOD SECURITY Food security is a state of being. Like literacy or good health, food security is a state that everyone wants to enjoy. Governments have decreed that every person has an inalienable right to food. The fundamental purpose of economic activity is to ensure adequate access to food for oneself and one’s family. The primacy of food security as an objective for human activity is reflected in the frequency with which the term â€Å"food security† appears in UN declarations and NGO advocacy efforts. You read "Human Rights and Food Security" in category "Food" The World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement on Agriculture acknowledges the legitimacy of food security concerns. South Africa, Brazil and Norway have all enshrined the right to food in law. There are basically three principle elements of Food Security. These are: Supply: Global food production has by and large kept up with or exceeded demand over the past century. The application of new technologies to agriculture, including mechanized vehicles to till, plant and harvest crops; improved seed and breeding stock; and the use of herbicides, pesticides and inorganic fertilizers, has vastly increased productivity. At the same time , one third or more of agricultural land used to be dedicated to growing fuel (wood to burn) or feed for the animals that provide muscle for transportation and production (hay for horses and oxen). Much of that land is now available to grow food for humans instead, adding to the total overall supply. Distribution: Distribution depends on such things as markets, transportation, infrastructure, relative purchasing power and the source and nature of the supply. Where the food is traded commercially , the volume and type of food traded is related to purchasing power and the ease with which the trader can reach a market. Access: Food security is about individuals , families and communities, not about regional and national aggregates. That is why, supply is only one piece of the food security puzzle. Only rarely does a whole country face hunger or famine. Rather, when the food supply is insufficient, those with greater purchasing power get food while those without sufficient income or entitlement go hungry. CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS FOR ENSURING FOOD SECURITY In India there is a deeply rooted tradition of respect for food – it stresses the importance of growing and sharing food. Sharing or offering food is a universal tradition shared by all religious entities that have roots in the Indian soil. Accordingly, in 1950, India adopted a very progressive Constitution aimed at ensuring all its citizens social, economic and political justice, equality, and dignity. Therefore any law to be valid in Indian Territory must be within the constitutional framework. Like in many countries of the World the â€Å"The Right to Food† in Indian Constitution is not recognized as a â€Å"Fundamental Right†. Therefore, there is no constitutional mandate to have a claim over it. Regarding right to food, one has to look for relevance in Article 21 of the Constitution, entitled â€Å"Protection of life and personal liberty† and Article 47 â€Å"Duty of the state to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living [†¦]† as well as in judicial interventions of the Supreme Court and various Acts, which have cumulatively strengthened the right to food in India. Knowing the constitutional and legislative framework in India regarding the right to food is crucial for identifying right to food violations and supporting victims in realizing their right to food. Indian Constitution Part III, Article 21 â€Å"Protection of life and personal liberty – No person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except to procedure established by law. † The phrases â€Å"Protection of life† and â€Å"personal liberty† have called several times for interpretation. A series of judicial interventions and interpretations have deepened the normative content of this fundamental right. Indian Constitution Part IV: Directive Principles The right to food or in general the economic, social, and cultural rights are defined in Part IV of the Constitution as Directive Principles of State Policy, which are guidelines to the central and State Governments for framing laws and policies. The provisions are not enforceable by any court, but the principles laid down therein are considered as fundamental in the Governance of the country. There are several Articles under the Directive Principles offer remote relevance for the right to food, but the clearest statement regarding the right to food is provided by Article 47. Article 47:   Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health. The State shall regard the raising of the level of nutrition and the standard of living of its people and the improvement of public health as among its primary duties and, in particular, the State shall endeavor to bring about prohibition of the consumption except for medicinal purposes of intoxicating drinks and of drugs, which are injurious to health. Putting together Article 21 and 47 and various interpretations of the Supreme Court of one can safely say that the Government of India has a constitutional obligation to take appropriate measures to ensure a dignified life with adequate food for all citizens. The right to food can be regarded as a fundamental right by virtue of interpretation. NATIONAL MEASURES TO ENSURE FOOD SECURITY There has been a continous appeal to the Government for passing a legislation on food security. The government is likely to accept most of the recommendations of Sonia Gandhi-led National Advisory Council (NAC) on the proposed food security law despite warnings that the suggestions would add to subsidy burden, increase dependence on imports and distort the country’s food economy. The food ministry has set out plans that are in line with the NAC’s proposal to widen the scope of the legislation, which seeks to provide legal guarantee of subsidised grains to the poor. Several experts have warned that the NAC recommendations would force the government to substantially raise its grain procurement, which in turn would lead to a larger subsidy burden on its already stretched finances. The council had proposed legal subsidised food entitlements for at least 72% of the country’s population in Phase-I by 2011-12. The NAC had also proposed legal subsidised food entitlements for 75% of the country’s population, covering the ‘priority’ (below the poverty line) and ‘general’ (above the poverty line) households, in Phase-II by 2013-14. National Food Security Bill, 2011 The government has introduced the much anticipated National Food Security Bill — a legislation aimed at shoring up the UPA’s support base — in Parliament. The â€Å"landmark social legislation† will guarantee grain at extremely cheap rates to more than half of the population. Food minister KV Thomas, who introduced the bill in the Lok Sabha amid thumping of desks by Congress members led by party president Sonia Gandhi, said that it would ensure that all Indians â€Å"live a life with dignity†. The bill marks a shift in approach to the problem of food security — from the current welfare paradigm to a rights-based approach. The proposed legislation confers eligible beneficiaries the legal right to receive grain at highly subsidised prices. The National Food Security Bill, 2011, considered to be the world’s largest experiment in ensuring food security to poor, has been a key project of Congress president Sonia Gandhi. The bill brings under its purview 63. 5% of the country’s population —75% of rural households and 50% of urban households. The bill classifies all entitled households as â€Å"general† and â€Å"priority†. At least 46% of rural households and 28% of urban households would be designated as â€Å"priority†. Every person belonging to a â€Å"priority household† will be provided with 7kg of grain per month, comprising rice, wheat and coarse grain. Rice will be provided at Rs 3, wheat at Rs 2 and coarse grain at Rs 1 per kg. Others belonging to the â€Å"general category† would be entitled to not less than 3kg of grain per month at a rate not exceeding 50% of the minimum support price. Once passed, the food subsidy bill is expected to rise to Rs 95,000 crore. Initial estimates pegged the increase in subsidy at nearly Rs 28,000 crore. However, on Thursday, the government made a downward revision of the additional burden on the central government — between R 21,000 crore to R 23,000 crore. The bill’s financial memorandum estimates the total annual expenditure on food subsidy under the targeted public distribution system at about Rs 79,800 crore. â€Å"The estimate of food subsidy is however dependent, among other things, upon economic cost, central issue of price of grain, number of beneficiaries covered and quantities of grain allocated and lifted, and therefore subject to change with changes in any or all of the variables affecting food subsidy,† the memorandum states. Experts maintain that the annual increase would be to the tune of Rs 27,500 crore. However, Thomas said â€Å"an additional amount of not more than about Rs 20,000-21,000 crore annually would be required by way of subsidy. † The minister argued since the food bill merges many ongoing programmes meant for women, children and the poor, there would be no additional financial burden. The total financial liability to implement the law is expected to be Rs 3. 5 lakh crore, with funds being required to raise agriculture production, create storage space and publicity. A sum of roughly Rs 1,11,000 crore would be required to boost farm output with grain requirement increasing, on account of this intervention, from 55 million tonne to 61 million tonne annually. Thomas stressed that â€Å"this Rs 1,10,600 crore is not an additional burden. We need to invest in agriculture to boost production anyway†. The proposed law entitles every pregnant woman and lactating mother to meal free of cost during pregnancy and six months after childbirth. Cash benefits of Rs 1,000 per month to meet increased food requirements of pregnant women would be provided for the first six months of pregnancy. At Rs 1,000 per month and covering 2. 25 crore women, an expenditure of nearly Rs 13,500 crore has been estimated. This will be borne by the central government and the states. Schemes to Ensure Food Security: There are also certain central food schemes and other assistance programmes for the poor in India. These are: * Targeted Public Distribution System; * Antyodaya Anna Yojana; * Mid-day meal scheme; * Annapoorna Yojana; * Integrated Child Development Services; * National family benefit scheme; * National maternity benefit scheme; and National old age pension scheme. The Public Distribution System (PDS) Public Distribution System (PDS) is an Indian food security system. Established by the Government of India under Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food, and Public Distribution and managed jointly with state governments in India, it distributes subsidised food and non-food items to India’s poor. Major commodities distributed include staple food grains, such as wheat, rice, sugar, and kerosene, through a network of Public distribution shops (PDS) established in several states across the country. Food Corporation of India, a Government-owned corporation, procures, maintain and issue food grains to the state. Distribution of food grains to poor people throughout the country are managed by state governments. As of date there are about 4. 99 lakh Fair Price Shops (FPS) across India. Annapoorna Yojana This scheme was started by the government in 1999-2000 to provide food to senior citizens who cannot take care of themselves and are not under the targeted public distribution system (TPDS), and who have no one to take care of them in their village. This scheme would provide 10  kg of free food grains a month for the eligible senior citizens. The allocation for this scheme as off 2000-01 was Rs 100 crore. Antyodaya Anna Yojana Antyodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) is an Indian government sponsored scheme for ten millions of the poorest families. It was launched by NDA government in December 2000. It is on the lookout for the ‘poorest of the poor’ by providing them 35 kilos of rice and wheat at Rs. 2 per kg. Mid-Day Meals Scheme The Midday Meal Scheme is the popular name for school meal programme in India which started in the 1960s. It involves provision of lunch free of working days. The key objectives of the programme are: protecting children from classroom hunger, increasing school enrollment and attendance, improved socialization among children belonging to all castes, addressing malnutrition, and social empowerment through provision of employment to women. The scheme has a long history, especially in the state of Tamil Nadu. The scheme was introduced statewide by the then Chief Minister K. Kamaraj in the 1960s and later expanded by the M. G. Ramachandran government in 1982. It has been adopted by most Indian states after a landmark direction by the Supreme Court of India on November 28, 2001. The success of this scheme is illustrated by the tremendous increase in the school participation and completion rates in Tamil Nadu. Status of the Food Schemes in India The framework of the right to food is one of the basic economic and social rights that are essential to achieve the â€Å"economic democracy† without which political democracy is , at best, incomplete. The right to food is nowhere being realized in India. The schemes introduced by the Government are well designed, yet their implementation has been poor. In India, food security exists at the macro level in terms of physical access to food. Economic access is far from satisfactory, both at the micro as well as the macro level. The statement that economic access to food is far from satisfactory is confirmed by the fact that a significant proportion of the society lives in poverty and is malnourished. This section of the society is underprivileged and has less voice. INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS TO ENSURE FOOD SECURITY The right to food imposes on all States obligations not only towards the persons living on their national territory, but also towards the populations of other States. These two sets of obligations complement one another. The right to food can only be fully realized where both ‘national’ and ‘international’ obligations are complied with. CONSTITUTION OF FAO, 1965 Preamble The Nations accepting this Constitution, being determined to promote the common welfare by furthering separate and collective action on their part for the purpose of: raising levels of nutrition and standards of living†¦ and thus†¦ nsuring humanity’s freedom from hunger. WORLD FOOD SUMMIT PLAN OF ACTION, 1996 Commitment Seven We will implement, monitor and follow-up this Plan of Action at all levels in cooperation with the international community. Objective 7. 4 To clarify the content of the right to adequate food and the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, as stated in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and other relevant international and regional instruments, and to give particular attention to implementation and full and progressive realization of this right as a means of achieving food security for all. To this end, governments, in partnership with all actors of civil society, will, as appropriate: a. Make every effort to implement the provisions of Article 11 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (the Covenant) and relevant provisions of other international and regional instruments; b. Urge States that are not yet Parties to the Covenant to adhere to the Covenant at the earliest possible time; c. Invite the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to give particular attention to this Plan of Action in the framework of its activities and to continue to monitor the mplementation of the specific measures provided for in Article 11 of the Covenant; d. Invite relevant treaty bodies and appropriate specialized agencies of the UN to consider how they might contribute, within the framework of the coordinated follow-up by the UN system to the major international UN conferences and summits, including the World Conference on Human Rights, Vienna 1993, within the scope of their mandates, to the further implementation of this right; e. Invite the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, in consultation with relevant treaty bodies, and in collaboration with relevant specialized agencies and programmes of the UN system and appropriate intergovernmental mechanisms, to better define the rights related to food in Article 11 of the Covenant and to propose ways to implement and realize these rights as a means of achieving the commitments and objectives of the World Food Summit, taking into account the possibility of formulating voluntary guidelines for food security for all. UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS, 1948 Article 25 Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and his family, including food†¦ INTERNATIONAL COVENANT ON ECONOMIC, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL RIGHTS, 1966 Article 11 1. The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food.  · The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right, recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international cooperation based on free consent. 2. The States Parties to the present Covenant, recognizing the fundamental right of everyone to be free from hunger, shall take, individually and through international cooperation, the measures, including specific programmes, which are needed: a. To improve methods of production, conservation and distribution of food by making full use of technical and scientific knowledge, by disseminating knowledge of the principles of nutrition and by developing or reforming agrarian systems in such a way as to achieve the most efficient development and utilization of natural resources; b. Taking into account the problems of both food-importing and food-exporting countries, to ensure an equitable distribution of world food supplies in relation to need. Article 2 1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take steps, individually and through international assistance and cooperation, especially economic and technical, to the maximum of its available resources, with a view to achieving progressively the full realization of the rights recognized in the present Covenant by all appropriate means, including particularly the adoption of legislative measures. UNITED NATIONS CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD, 1989 Article 24 1. States Parties recognize the right of the child to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health and to facilities for the treatment of illness and rehabilitation of health. States Parties shall strive to ensure that no child is deprived of his or her right of access to health care services. 2. States Parties shall pursue full implementation of this right and, in particular, shall take appropriate measures: c. o combat disease and malnutrition, including within the framework of primary health care, through, inter alia, the application of readily available technology and through the provision of adequate nutritious foods. d. to ensure that all segments of society, in particular parents and children, are informed, have access to education and are supported in the use of basic knowledge of child health and nutrition. Article 27 States Parties, in accordance with national conditions and within their mea ns†¦ shall in case of need provide material assistance and support programmes, particularly with regard to nutrition. Apart from these the Right to Food has also been recognized in many specific international instruments as varied as the 1948  Genocide Convention  (Article 2), the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees  (Articles 20 and 23),  the 1989  Convention on the Rights of the Child  (Articles 24(2)(c) and 27(3)), the 1979  Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women  (Articles 12(2)), or the 2007Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities  (Articles 25(f) and 28(1)). JUDICIAL INTERPRETATIONS 1. KISHEN PATTNAYAK VS. STATE OF ORISSA, In this petition, the petitioner wrote a letter to the Supreme Court bringing to the court’s notice the extreme poverty of the people of Kalahandi in Orissa where hundreds were dying due to starvation and where several people were forced to sell their children. The letter prayed that the State Government should be directed to take immediate steps in order to ameliorate this miserable condition of the people of Kalahandi. This was the first case specifically taking up the issue of starvation and lack of food. In this judgement, the Supreme Court took a very pro-government approach and gave directions to take macro level measures to address the starvation problem such as implementing irrigation projects in the state so as to reduce the drought in the region, measures to ensure fair selling price of paddy and appointing of a Natural Calamities Committee. None of these measures actually directly affected the immediate needs of the petitioner, i. e. to prevent people from dying of hunger. More importantly, the Supreme Court did not recognise the specific Right to Food within this context of starvation. . PUCL VS. UNION OF INDIA, This is a landmark case relating to Right to Food and food security. This case, technically known as â€Å"PUCL vs Union of India and others (Writ Petition [Civil] No. 196 of 2001)†, is handled by an advisory group consisting of a few members from the People’s Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL), Human Rights Law Network (HRLN), former support group of the RIght to Food Campaign and other active individuals in the campaign. Supreme Court hearings have been held at regular intervals since April 2001, and the case has attracted wide national and international attention. Although the judgment is still awaited, significant â€Å"interim orders† have been passed from time to time. For instance, the Supreme Court has passed orders directing the Indian government to: (1) introduce cooked mid-day meals in all primary schools, (2) provide 35 kgs of grain per month at highly subsidized prices to 15 million destitute households under the Antyodaya component of the PDS, (3) double resource allocations for Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (India’s largest rural employment programme at that time, now superseded by the Employment Guarantee Act), and (4) universalize the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS). . CHAMELI SINGH VS. STATE OF U. P. , In this case, it was held that right to life guaranteed in any civilized society implies the right to food, water, decent environment, education, medical care and shelter. The method in which the constitutional social rights or the DPSP have been enforced or made justifiable by the Supreme Court has be en through an expansion of the existing fundamental rights, particularly the Right to Life guaranteed in Article 21. CONCLUSION Starvation deaths and high prevalence of hunger clearly show that India needs to wake up. The judiciary cannot monitor the implementation of the schemes forever. The government needs to review policy from time to time and take corrective measures for effective implementation of different schemes and programmes, establish effective mechanisms of accountability and ensure the right to food for all. As the problem of food insecurity relates to both the demand and supply of food, a solution could be to empower people towards greater purchasing power, as well as addressing the inadequacy of the distribution system, and checking corruption and leakages. Awareness among the people with regard to their right to food can escalate the process of equitable distribution and thus help to realize the right to food for all citizens. The right to food is not just a basic human right, it is also a basic human need. It essentially requires the state to ensure that at least people do not starve. Implementation of the right to food does not imply that impossible efforts be undertaken by the states. The obligation to protect and respect the people compels the state to implement the right to food effectively, without recourse to extensive financial means. ——————————————– 2 ]. Food Crisis and Sustainable Food Security in India by Jaydeb Sarkhel [ 3 ]. Right to Food- Reforms and Approaches, 2007, The Icfai University Press, pp5-6 [ 4 ]. Dev, S. M, and R Evenson (2003) ‘Rural Development in India:Rural, Non-farm and mitigation’ SCID Wo rking Paper No. 187. [ 5 ]. See available at http://socialissuesindia. wordpress. com/2010/08/05/human-rights-to-food-in-indian-constitution/ [ 6 ]. See available at http://articles. economictimes. indiatimes. com/2011-05-23/news/29574365_1_nac-recommendations-food-security-law-food-entitlements [ 7 ]. See available at http://articles. economictimes. ndiatimes. com/2011-12-23/news/30550903_1_food-subsidy-national-food-security-bill-grain [ 8 ]. Right to Food- Reforms and Approaches, 2007, The Icfai University Press, p. 230 [ 9 ]. As amended in 1965. [ 10 ]. Adopted by the World Food Summit, Rome, 13 to 17 November 1996. FAO. 1997. Report of the World Food Summit, Part One. Rome [ 11 ]. Adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December 1948. UN doc. A/811. [ 12 ]. General Assembly Resolution 2200 A (XXI), Annex, of 16 December 1966. [ 13 ]. General Assembly Resolution 44/25, Annex, of 20 November 1989. [ 14 ]. AIR 1989 SC 677. [ 15 ]. 2001. [ 16 ]. (1996) 2 SCC 549. How to cite Human Rights and Food Security, Essays

Criminology and Criminal Justice

Question: Discuss about theCriminology and Criminal Justice. Answer: Introduction: The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Australians, commonly known as the Indigenous People have become the disproportionate victims and offenders related to homicide incidents, both in terms of their relative population and also in comparison to their non-Indigenous counterparts. The reason for this should not be hard to find for the Australian policy makers, but it seems they played ignorant to the needs of this centuries old society of the continent and hence involuntarily contributed to the growth of offenders among the Indigenous community, as per Bryant (ed.), (2012). The current position among the Indigenous youth is that a brush with the legal forces and even getting imprisoned is normal. But socially and humanitarianly, it would be quite insulting to classify the 21st century Indigenous Australians as criminal and incarcerated. There are many glorious examples of the Indigenous Australians who have flourished in the society, in terms of self-respect and also by keeping out of any kind of criminal activities. If they can make the grade, without losing their Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders identity, why cant others. The issue is not only about law and order, it involves a culture which is centuries old and needs to be accommodated into the new stream. It is about a response from the community as well as the authorities, says Short, (2016). The Assimilation Policy (c. 1940-75) was creating intervention in the family life of the Indigenous people and causing disrespect to their heritage. In fact, it was not in favour of reforming the Indigenous people and make them capable of adopting the mainstream Australian culture. This policy was also not in favour of repealing those laws which, under the guise of protection, were limiting the freedom rights of the Indigenous Australians. Such laws were depriving the Indigenous people of their welfare entitlements and were restricting their free association with the non-Indigenous people, especially in towns and cities, explains Short, (2016). Thus, in the long run, these four decades had the lasting effects of instilling this program of legal reforms and institutional changes which created the undercurrents of a deepening problem among the Indigenous people leading them towards criminal activities. Even the recently expressed criminological views by social scientists in their writings point towards the fact that these liberalising elements of assimilation contributed to the criminalisation of the Indigenous culture. Studies conducted on a section of Indigenous and non-Indigenous residents of New South Wales, who were born in 1984, assert Nalla Newman (ed.), (2013), have revealed that a large proportion (75.6%) of the Indigenous population as compared to only 16.9% of the non-Indigenous people in this section of the city were warned by police during the so-called Youth Justice Conference for various offence. Although it was found that nearly 25% of the Indigenous people had no such previous record. Such politically motiva ted culture drives instil in the Indigenous minorities a sense that their small numbers and powerlessness, is the main reason for this treatment, as per Nalla Newman (ed.), (2013). This, in Australia, has forced the Aborigines as well as other minority immigrant groups to adopt marginalised ways which are more advantageous to follow rather than get involved in the class or party politics. It is, in fact, only a small proportion of the Aboriginal population which is responsible for generating a relatively high rate of Indigenous criminalisation. For the authorities, as well as the cultural harbingers of the society, it is then a more important reason not to overlook such a significant phenomenon among the Aboriginal people who do not get involved in adverse activities with the legal system, as suggested by Alexander, (2013). Investigations by the Royal Commission of 1991 revealed 99 cases ofAboriginal deaths in police custodybetween 1 January 1980 and 31 May 1989. The major findings of the commission included the death in 1981 of rugby playerEddie Murray during custody at theWee Waapolice station. Noteworthy was the fact that Police Commissioner Elliott Johnston regretted the lack of disciplinary charges against five officers found to be involved in the violent death in 1983 of John Pat, a 16-year-old Aboriginal boy,atRoebourne in Western Australia, says Alexander, (2013). In its final report, the Commission was of the opinion that all these 99 deathswere not because of violence by the police, quote - "... the immediate causes of the deaths do not include foul play, in the sense of unlawful, deliberate killing of Aboriginal prisoners by police and prison officers. More than one-third of the deaths (37) were from disease; 30 were self-inflicted hangings; 23 were caused by other forms of external trauma, e specially head injuries; and 9 were immediately associated with dangerous alcohol and other drug use. Indeed, heavy alcohol use was involved in some way in deaths in each of these categories. The chapter concludes that glaring deficiencies existed in the standard of care afforded to many of the deceased." Unquote. Among the noteworthy findings of the Commission were the findings that the average annual rate of death for an Indigenous person in police custody had decreased from 4.4 deaths per 100,000 people between 1980 and 1989, to 3.8 deaths per 100,000 people between 1990 and 1999, as per Carl et al, (2011). It was noted that during these periods, deaths of Indigenous people in police operations had decreased from 21% to 18% when comparison was made to all deaths that occurred during custody. While comparing these figures with homicides involving the non-Indigenous people, it was reported that only 22% were influenced by alcohol in both the victims as well as offenders, says Bryant (ed.), (2012). Use of alcohol was significant among the Indigenous people, reported at 69% among Indigenous victims and at 72% among Indigenous offenders, as compared to just 27% among the non-Indigenous victims and only 31% among non-Indigenous offenders. Another statistical data obtained from the Australian Inst itute of Health and Welfare (refer to AIHW 2011a and b) also confirms that although both communities consume alcohol, the Indigenous Australians consumption reaches harmful levels, excerpts Carl et al, (2011). Indigenous communities started the involvement of elders in the judicial system who participated in sentencing process of the urban Indigenous offenders. This practice started in 1999 in South Australia after several years of consultation among the community groups. Effect of this has been found since then in the new judicial practices which are being established in other jurisdictions, as per Bryant (ed.), (2012). Although the process is taking time, establishment of courts in the urban centres is picking up. These courts are setting aside one to three days in a month exclusively to cases involving Indigenous offenders, assert Lewis Lewis, (2014). The practice of involving the Indigenous communities in remote areas is also gathering momentum as judicial officers undertake travel on the circuit. Remote area courts include the Nunga and Aboriginal Courts in South Australia, the Koori Courts in Victoria, the Murri and Rockhampton Courts in Queensland and Circle Sentencing in New South Wales. Those involving the community elders are those in the sentencing circles in remote parts of Western Australia and New South Wales, including the Justice Groups in Queensland, according to Lewis Lewis, (2014). The ultimate aim of the majority of 339 recommendations proposed by the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC) focussed on reducing incarceration among the Indigenous people and increasing their participation in the judicial system either as court staff or as advisors. This has also resulted in the emergence of Justice Agreements among many states of Australia which are recognising partnerships between the state government and the various Aboriginal organisations for building a better system of justice and social equality for the Indigenous people, says Short, (2016). In the courts now being established, equality is shown by the judges/magistrates who although retaining the ultimate power of sentencing an Indigenous offender, sit at eye level to the Indigenous offender, across a bar table rather than across the bench. Services of a respected elder Indigenous person are taken, although his role varies as per jurisdiction area, according to Nalla Newman (ed.), (2013). This participation of an elder starts from addressing the offender about their social behaviour and goes on to playing an important role in finalising the sentence and subsequently monitoring the offenders progress throughout the judicial process. A young Indigenous boy, appearing in a court and being made to narrate his first offence is surely a fearful and embarrassing experience for many first time offenders. Here, presence of an elder or a respected person from own community in the court proves to be effective as it creates a constructive and positive atmosphere when the elder Indigenous person speaks and supports the offender, assert Nalla Newman (ed.), (2013). This morale booster is something which was always lacking in the judiciary, But now, a new breed of judges and magistrates in the criminal courts are adopting a far more activist attitude towards imparting criminal justice. They are being supported by the administrative branches of the governments and the court authorities. Such supportive innovations among the judicial officers is helping the emerging courts in Victoria and Queensland since 2002 in adopting the Nunga Court Model to suit the local conditions, as per Lewis Lewis, (2014). The ABS Census of 2102 showed that these Indigenous people who comprised of just 3% of the Australian population in 201112, were contributing 13% of the homicide victims and 11 percent to homicide offenders. This rate of victimisation as well as offending among the Indigenous people was about five times higher as compared to the non-Indigenous people, asserts Alexander, (2013). These comments were based on the understanding that for some Indigenous people in Australia, it is normal to remain at odds with the criminal law and who are unlikely to be arrested, convicted and imprisoned. Authorities however are consenting to the problem that excessive Indigenous incarceration is a disturbing product of Australian whites colonial history, explains Carl et al, (2011). The author of this paper however adopted the approach in a different way by pondering on the question In what ways, the socio-economic and cultural differences among the Indigenous people in Australia are relevant in understa nding their high rates of incarceration. Such a high rate of Indigenous incarceration poses a problem not only for makers of public policy but also for analysing them from historical and social purposes. Social scientists are of the opinion that this Indigenous incarceration is basically because of the whites treating the Indigenous people as outsiders and this has resulted from their long role of dominance and colonization, according to Carl et al, (2011). The percentage figures justify the fact that Indigenous people were involved as offenders in 16% of reported homicide incidents. Another disturbing fact is that 70% of these reported homicides involved either an Indigenous offender or an Indigenous victim. Comparing them with the statistics made available by ABS-2011-12, of the 72% cases of homicide incidents among the non-Indigenous people, either as an offender or as a victim, 93% involved either a non-Indigenous offender or a non-Indigenous victim, says Short, (2016). It has also been found in studies that the assimilation policy forced many of such excluded Aborigines to the cities and towns where they could find jobs, were not able to adopt the urban lifestyle and because of their unorthodox cultural ways, soon felt marginalised and, in some respects, criminalised. Indigenous incarceration? Social scientists have often pondered over this term and reasons behind its use. Studies have suggested that for some of the Aboriginal communities, being in prison is considered a normal happening in their lives and is not a phase to be ashamed of in ones life-course. Many studies have also revealed this is because of several differences and similarities in the perspective of the Indigenous people and the white people, namely How the whites position themselves in the society and to the values about debate about punishment given to Indigenous people. The historical understanding about the protection to be provided to the Indigenous people including the impact of assimilation. Difference of opinion of the Indigenous people as to whether the law and order in Australia is biased against Indigenous Australians. Whether Indigenous people should be considered as a community of fate. On these factors, opinion of Kath Walker, Secretary of the Queensland State Council for Advancement of Aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders, which she expressed in December 1964, makes it clear why more and more of the Indigenous people are feeling assimilated and it is because of the reason that some flourish while some fail, explains Bryant (ed.), (2012). Walkers 1964 remarks were made during a conference on Aborigines in the economy held at the Centre for Research into Aboriginal Affairs of Monash University. Walker reassured the conference, and is quoted, There are some who will never ever make the grade, but the average are not any different from any other society or any other race. You all have your rejects. We are no different. We too are quite well aware of the fact that some of our people will not make the grade and we are not as nave as to think that all of us can be rescued. Some of us will be left behind, as you yourselves have left some of your own people behind. Unquo te. List of References Alexander, M. 2013, The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colour blindness. The New Press, New York. Bryant, C.D. (ed.) 2012, Routledge Handbook of Deviant Behaviour. Taylor Francis, Oxon. Carl, J., Baker, S., Robards, B., Scorr, J., Hillman, W. and Lawrence, G. 2011, Think Sociology. Pearson Higher Education AU, Frenchs Forest, NSW. Lewis, B. and Lewis, J. 2014, Health Communication: A Media and Cultural Studies Approach. Palgrave Macmillan, London. Nalla, M.K. and Newman, G.R. (ed.) 2013, Community Policing in Indigenous Communities. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. Short, D. 2016, Reconciliation and Colonial Power: Indigenous Rights in Australia. Routledge, Oxon.